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EVOLUTION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Continent pangia- 2- gondanaland and lorasia to 5. Continental nation – Australia – beg -6- great barier reef

Origin of man in Africa. 1000 mosque kayro- Egypt – capital

1.     Common ancestor – Aryan/ indo – European about 3500 bc to 3000 bc  - nomads dwelled in black sea to asia / Europe

Tribes: indo- Iranian, Albanian , Armenian, Balto- Slavonic, Hellenic, Celtic, Italic, Germanic to NEW- West High/low/anglofrisian- old English

Britain and England are names of tribes (600 AD -1100AD)

2tenses; future in meaning, case, endings

2.     Middle age : (1100- 1500 AD) ’s ,from French ‘of’, 3 genders, beef, sheep, dinner, banquet, court, custom, rent, price, battle, uncle, aunt, cousin, prison

3.     Danish: 3^rd pp, skin, skill , ill, leg, get, Thursday, infinitive, will shall, adj: more and most

4.     Strong verbs: pt and pp – change of root vowels, weak verbs by adding an inflectional suffix, had 19 forms in case, number and gender.

5.     Amrigo vaspuhi – Italian traveler- American migration – 1620. Oliver Cromwell # James 1 – 1630-1640

EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE

Gesture, sound, word, sentence, paragraph, essay, literature

Sound =44: vowels: - Pure -12, Diphthongs- 8

Consonants: 24

Articles: Indefinite – an, a/ Definite: the

Capitals: proper, I, God, fest, poems, language, “”,!

PUNCTUATIONS

1.     Full stop: the longest pause, sentence, statement, command, abbreviation

2.     Question mark ?: direct question

3.     Exclamation mark ! : sudden feelings

4.     Comma: Parenthesis – But their question, I think, is difficult to settle.

5.      Apostrophe: boy’s, boys’, n’t, it’s, ’m, ’ve, ’ll

6.     Semicolon: it was a small fight, certainly; it was an important event. Reading makes a full man; speaking, a ready man; writing, an exact man.

7.     Colon: examples, quotations, dash – Man proposes: God disposes.

8.     “” NAmE,BrE : “words of the speaker”

9.     Dash: parenthesis : Raju is- I hesitate to say it- a criminal.

10.                        Hyphen: compound words – : sea- route, market- place

PART OF SPEECH

Noun = Name

1.     Abstract , Concrete

Proper, common, material, collective

2.     Countable and uncountable

3.     Singular and plural

4.     Gender: masculine, feminine, neutral, common

Pronoun = proxy for noun

1.     Personal: 1^st , 2^nd ,3^rd

2.     Reflexive /Emphatic : pro + self/ves

3.     Possessive: his

4.     Demonstrative: this, that

5.     Indefinite: some, many, all

6.     Distributive: each, either, neither

7.     Reciprocal / compound personal: each other, one another

8.     Relative: who, that, whom, whose,

9.     Interrogative: what, how, when

10.                        Exclamatory: what, who

The student who won the second rank attended the meeting.

What! You don’t know her?

Adjectives = qualifying words, ad more meaning

Single: little

Compound: out of the way cottage

Two functions / position: attributive, predicative = v+o – Raju is clever

Kind of adjectives:

1.     Quality: beautiful

2.     Demonstrative: this, that

3.     Quantity and Number : much, many

4.     Interrogative: what time is it?

5.     Distributive: each, either

6.     Possessive: my

7.     Emphasizing: own, very

8.     Exclamatory: what a fool!

Noun= the+ adj: the poor = poor men

Degree: +,&, super(‘ior’ ending “to” /not than )

Affix= prefix + suffix

Little, less, least, fever, late, later, latest, latter, last; elder, older, further, farther

Verb

Transitive and intransitive = O

Position: Main Verb and Auxiliary Verb

PAV: be , has, do (MV)

SAV = will, shall, may, can

Tense: SP near future: we leave Delhi at 10am and arrive I London at 2pm. We stop there for two hours and then fly to Newyork.

Vivid: it is a trick used by the narrator to make past events seems immediate.

Will and Shall

1.     I /we = shall

You/3^rd pp = will

2.     I /we +will

Offer: I will carry that for you

Promise: I will meet you at 10.

Determination: I /we will fight against corruption

3.     2^nd pp & 3^rd pp + shall

Order: you shall go there.

Threat: lazy students shall be punished

Compulsion: you shall have to come here

4.     In the following sentences (shall) the will of the speaker is expressed.

Assurance: you shall have whatever you need. You shall not go short of money.

Intention: you shall have the best education possible.

23 Special Verbs

PAVs, SAVs, ought to, must, need, dare (because they can be used with “not”)

Could

1.     Indicate ability that existed in the past tense: In my younger days I could run 5 miles at a stretch.

2.     Report speech

3.     Unreal condition: you could do it if you tried hard.

4.     Polite?: could I have a glass of water , please?

Verbs no ING: 5senses, know, understand, notice, watch, believe, like, love, remember, depend, own, resemble, and observe (notice), have (posses), listen, look, forget, want, belong, consist, cost.

Adverb = qualifying words, ad more meaning

Manner: how? = well

Place: where? = here, there

Time: when? = all day

They have been working hard (manner) at office (place) everyday (time).

Time always placed in the beginning or end.

Phrases

Noun phrases: The child likes to see his mother. The boy likes everyone.

Adjective phrase:  The Indian army, a green bird, a populated city

Adverb phrase: after sometimes, at this moment, in a moderate manner

Manner: Ram spoke wisely.

Place: you can’t get it any place.

Time: he is coming after some times.

Pope says, “A little learning is a dangerous thing”. ‘I don’t go looking for eggs in other people’s yard.

Kind of Prepositions

Simple: {at, for from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with}

Compound: which are generally formed by prefixing a prep (usually a= no or be=by to a noun, an adj/ adv )

{About, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, without}

Phrase : {according to, agreeable to, along with, away from, because of , by dint of, by means of , by reason of, by virtue of , by way of , conformably to, for the sake of, in accordance with, in addition to, in/on behalf of, in case of, in compliance with, in consequence of, in front of, in lieu of, in order to, in place of , in reference to, in regard to, in spite of, instead of, in the event of, on account of , owing to, with a view to, with an eye to , with reference to, with regard to }

Conjunctions

Joining words: Joining words, phrases, sentences

Co-ordinating:  and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for, only

Subordinating: if, although, though, before, after, until, till

Correlative: either-or, neither-nor, not only….. but… also, whether….or, both…and

Interjections

Sudden and deep feelings or emotions

Alas! What a pity!

Hurrah! I have won!

Alas! I am in real trouble!

MOOD

1.     Indicative: question , statement

2.     Imperative: exhortation, command, prayer

3.     Subjunctive: wish, desire, purpose

INFINITIVES

Change according to number and person = finite

Kind

1.     Simple: sub, obj, compliment

To smoke is forbidden

I came here to teach

Our wish is to live happily

2.     Qualifying: verb, adj, noun

She is slow to do her duty.

Omission

1.     Principle verb: see, hear, let, watch, make , have, know, bid, feel, need, dare

We saw him leave. He was seen to leave.

2.     Help : with or without

He helped us {to} push the boat.

3.     SAV and do: I can go = I am able to go

4.     After than & and

I would rather die than beg.

I want to sit and hear music.

5.     Verbs of knowing and thinking: object+ to be

He is known to be honest.

Split infinitive: in between to & verb

Present and past

CLAUSE

Subject and predicate form the part of sentence (7)

1.     Complex: main clause/principle + subordinate

When I completed my studies I began to work.

2.     Coordinate: main + main

He teaches well and he sings well.

Simple: he teaches well

Kind

Noun clause

I hope to win the race.

What he does is quite right.

I know where he stays.

Hoping that he would succeed, he continues his pursuit.

I differ with what you say.

Happiness is what we believe it is.

Life is what we make it.

He wants to know what my mobile number is.

Adjective clause

The reason he failed is that he was lazy.

This is the pen which I lost yesterday.

Tell me the song you like most.

Adverb clause

1.     Time: when he came it was to late.

2.     Condition: if it rains we shall play in rain.

No conj: Had I been a fish I would swam away.

Relative pro after adj/adv: whatever happens keeps cool.

3.     Place: I have hidden it where I can find it.

4.     Reason: Since you’re small you can’t do it.

5.     Purpose: you can’t succeed lest you work.

6.     Comparison: you may work, as you please.

7.     Effect, result, consequence:

He worked so hard that he got exhausted.

He was such a brave man that he went to enemies territory.

8.     Concession, contrast, supposition:

Though he is not rich he is honest.

Whatever you may do you will not be able to save him.

9.     Extent / manner

The cow ran as if it was shot at.

The more you eat, the stronger you become.

You may do as you like.

They danced as though they were exited.

CONDITIONALS

Sentence with IF are used to express possibilities.

First: if clause is present simple and main clause is future simple: consequence of possible actions.

Second: past simple and conditional simple

Hypothetical action = imagination

Third: past perfect and conditional perfect

Didn’t happen

Zero: Present simple {in both} or past simple.

 Sometimes sentences with if express certainty rather than possibility. The zero conditional is used to talk about sth that is always true or that was always true in the past.

CASE

1.     Nominative = nirdasica: subject of a verb

2.     Accusative = prathigrahika : direct object(ive)

3.     Genitive = sambanthica: possessive

4.     Ablative = prayogica : cause/ by

5.     Dative = udasica : Indirect object

6.     Vocative = samyogica : nominative of address/ call

7.     Adarika (mal)

ADVERB USAGES

1.     As well as : adupolatanna

2.     As soon as : kazhivtum vagthil

3.     No sooner than: in the same moment

4.     Either….or : choice of two things

5.     Neither….nor: edum alla atum alla

6.     Not only …..but also: idu mathramalla adumkoodi

7.     So…..that

8.     Both…..and

9.     Too……to

10.            Such….that: used to emphasize a great degree.

11.            As far as : sambnthichidatholam

12.            Such….as: athupola

13.            Even if/though: annannirikalum

14.            Although / though: annirikalum, annalam, anniddum

15.            Such and such:athoitho

16.            As though/ as if: inganayokayidum

RULES FOR UNCHANGING PAST TENSE

1.     In theory: written English past simple and past continuous are unchanged into past perfect and past perfect continuous. But in spoken English sometimes are not changed.

He said, “ when I went there, Raju was taking tea.”

He said that when he had gone there he had been taking tea (odd, stereotyped)

He said that when he went there he was taking tea.

2.  A condition in the past tense

He exclaimed, “I didn’t buy the car, because it was second hand”

He exclaimed that he didn’t buy the car because it was second hand

3. would, should, must, ought to, might, used to, had better: phrase

He said, “I would be there”

4. It is time, rather, wishes, would rather: She said, “it is time, politicians realize their mistakes.”

5. Second conditional

THE TECHNIQUES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS

Can be used to demonstrate the enormous creative power of language: how , from a finite set of grammatical patterns, even a young child can express an infinitive set of grammatical patterns, even a young child can express an infinite set of sentences. They can help us all to identify the fascinating edges of language, where we find the many kinds of humorous and dramatic effects, both in literature and in everyday language (David crystal; 1992:89)

6 types

1.     Prescriptive

2.     Descriptive

3.     Pedagogical

4.     Reference

5.     Theoretical and Traditional

6.     Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relation

7.     Communicative

TENSE USAGES (aspect)

The Present Simple

1.     To express a habitual action:

He drinks tea every day.

2.     General truth:

The sun rises in the east.

3.     In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what actually taking place in the present:

Here comes the bus.

4.     In vivid narratives as substitute for past simple:

Ram now rushes, forward and deals a heavy blow to Raju.

5.     Express an future event that is part of a fixed time table or fixed programme:

The match starts at 6 O’clock.

6.     Introduce a quotation:

Keats says, “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.”

7.     It is used instead of the future simple in clauses of time and condition:

If it rains we shall get wet.

8.     As in broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the present simple is used instead of the present continuous to describe activities in progress where there is stress on the succession of happening rather than on the duration.

9.     Instead of present continuous :

1.     verbs of perception: notice, recognize

2.     appearing : look, seem

3.     emotion: want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope, refuse, prefer

4.     posses: own

5.     thinking

The Present Continuous

1.     for the action going on at the time of speaking:

He is dancing.

2.     For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking:

I am reading Tagore. (But I am not reading now)

3.     For an action that already been arranged to take place in the near future:

I am going to cinema to night.

4.     It has been pointed out before that the present simple is used for a habitual action. However when the reference is to a particularly obstinate habit sth which persist.

5.     In spite of advice or warning: we use the present continuous with adverbs like: always, continually, constantly.

The Present Perfect

1.     To indicate completed activities in immediate past: with Just:

He has just gone out.

2.     To express past actions whose time is not given or not definite:

Have you read Gulliver’s Travls?

3.     To describe past events when we think more of their effect in the present than of the action itself:

Gopi has eaten all the mangos.

4.     To denote an action beginning at sometimes in the past and continuing up to the present: often with since and for phrases :

I have known him for a long time.

5.     The following adv/adv phrases can also be used with the present perfect: never, ever =? So far, till, now yet = -ve, already, today, this week.

6.     Present perfect is never used with adverbs of past time:

We should not say: He has gone to UK yesterday.

The Present Perfect Continuous

1.      Is  used for an action which began at sometime in the past and still continuing:

He has been sleeping for 7 hours.

2.     Activities is emphasized as an explanation of sth:

Why are your clothes so wet? I have been watering the plants.

The Past Simple

1.     Is used to indicate an action completed in the past: it often occurs with adv and phrases of the past time:

The steamer sailed yesterday.

2.     Used without adv of time: it may be either implied or indicated by the context: I learnt Hindi in Nagpur. 

3.     Is also used for past habit:

He studied many hours a day.

The Past Continuous

1.     Used to denote an action going on at sometime in the past: time may/not be indicated:

They were listing to the radio all evening.

It was getting darker.

2.     The past continuous are used together when a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. the past simple is used for the new action:

The light went out while I was reading.

When I saw him, he was playing chess.

3.     Used with always, continually, ect for persistent habit in the past:

She was always grumbling.

The Past Perfect

1.     It describes an action completed before a certain moment in the past:

I had seen him last 5 years before.

2.     If two actions happened in the past , it may be necessary to show which action happened earlier than other. The past perfect is mainly used in situations. The past simple is used in one clause and past perfect in the another:

I had done my exercise when Hari came to see me.

When I reached the station the train had started.

The Past Perfect Continuous

Is used for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time:

At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.

The Future Simple

1.     Is used to talk about things which we can’t control. It expresses the future as fact:

I shall be 20 next year.

2.     We use this tense to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future:

I am sure Helen will get a first class.

As in the above sentence we often use this tense with: I think, I’m sure, I expect, I believe….

3.     We can use this tense when we decide to do sth at the time of speaking:

It is raining I will take an umbrella.

The Future Continuous

1.     To talk about actions which will be in progress at time in the future:

I suppose it will be raining when we start.

2.     To talk about actions in the future which are already planed or which are expected to happen in normal course of things:

I will be staying here till Sunday.

The Future Perfect

Is used to talk about actions that will be completed by a certain future time:

I shall have written my research paper by then.

He will have left before you go to see him.

The Future Perfect Continuous

Is used for actions which will be in progress over a period of time that will end in the future:

By next may we shall have been living here for 4 years.

This tense usage is not very common.